Gluteus Maximus Definition

The Gluteus Maximus, Gluteus Medius and Gluteus Minimus, collectively referred to as the “Glutes,” are the three gluteal muscles. The Gluteus Maximus is the largest of the three. This large skeletal muscle is responsible for providing the butt with shape and helping the thigh move.

Gluteus Maximus Appearance

Picture 1 – Gluteus Maximus

The muscle has a large, thick and broad appearance. It looks like a fleshy, four-sided lump that makes up the protruded area of the buttock (nates).

Gluteus Maximus Anatomy

This muscle comprises of a fleshy mass as well as other constituents, such as:

• Inferior gluteal nerve – It is large-sized and essential for appropriate functioning of Gluteus Maximus. The nerve is responsible for transmission of information about activities performed by the muscle to the brain.
• Bursae – These are three small sacs filled with fluid which prevents grating of the muscle against the surface of the bone.
• Arteries – This muscle also comprises of the main superior and inferior gluteal arteries.

Gluteus Maximus Antagonist

The muscle works as an antagonist to the muscles like Psoas major, Psoas minor and Iliacus.

Gluteus Maximus Origin

The muscle has its origin at

• Sacrotuberous ligament
• Sacrum
• Lumbar fascia
• Gluteal surface of ilium

Gluteus Maximus Insertion

The points of insertion of this muscle are at the Iliotibial tract and the Gluteal tuberosity of the femur.

Gluteus Maximus Function

The muscle is mainly involved with lateral rotation of the upper leg and extension of the thigh at the hip. It also helps extend the pelvis that extends to the thigh. This large muscle lends support to the trunk and allows a human to stand and walk in an erect posture. Naturally, it is regarded as the strongest body muscle.

This formidable muscle supports the following functions:

• Lifting out the leg to the side
• Making the thigh extend straight at the hip
• Twisting away the thigh from the centre of the body

This is considered to be the main anti-gravity muscle that allows a person to perform various daily activities like:

• Cycling
• Running
• Squatting
• Walking up the stairs
• Jumping over ropes

The muscle can be felt in its extension phase when a person climbs up the stairs.

Gluteus Maximus Injury

An injury of this muscle is highly deceiving in nature. Gluteus Maximus injury usually gives rise to dull pain in the initial stages which gets worse with time. When injured, this muscle can affect important everyday activities like:

• Climbing up or running down stairs
• Sitting down
• Swimming
• Jumping
• Sitting for long periods on hard surfaces

If the muscle suffers a pull, it can make patients experience painful symptoms in regions like:

• Outer hip
• Lower back
• Buttocks
• Around the tail bone

Some patients also report about a burning feeling in the buttocks. When injured, the muscle should be given as much rest as possible. All activities involving it should be restricted or limited to a minimum. Injuries of this muscle usually heal on their own with rest and limitation of activities. More severe injuries require stretching and strengthening exercises.

Gluteus Maximus Exercises

The rear, or butt as is popularly known, has been regarded as one of the most vital parts of the body. A firm, well-rounded behind increases fat loss and strengthens the physique. It can boost the athletic performance of a person and help carry out daily activities much better. From an early time, various workouts have been devised to toughen the posterior and provide shape to it. The Gluteus Maximus muscle often suffers injuries during sports and athletic activities. Here are some exercises that can help strengthen this muscle and also make your butt appear more toned and attractive.

Gluteus Maximus Exercises For Men

Workouts for men and women differ based on the intensity of their performance. Generally, men have more neuromuscular efficiency and perform workouts with more explosive motion than women. Here are five great workouts that toughen the butt and make the gluteus maximus muscle more active.

Barbell Glute Bridge

This is regarded as one of the best workouts to tauten the posterior.

• Take a loaded barbell and place it on the floor.
• Sit over the floor next to the barbell.
• Fully stretch your legs right ahead.
• Roll the barbell directly over your hips.
• Bend up your knees. Make sure that your feet remain flat on the floor.
• Hold the bar alongside each hip.
• Use your heels to push the floor and raise your hips as high as you can to lift the bar every time. All through the movement, keep your upper back and heels pressed flat against the floor.

Barbell Hip Thrust

It is an advanced butt-firming workout that needs more stabilization than Barbell Glute Bridges.

• Sit on the floor beside a bench and stretch your legs right before. Make sure that the long side of the bench stays several inches behind your back. Keep a loaded barbell next to where you are seated.
• Directly roll the barbell over your hips. Bend up your knees and keep your feet flat over the floor.
• Lean back slowly to press the upper part of your back against the bench surface.
• Use an overhand grip to grasp the bar alongside each hip.
• Raise your hips in a thrusting movement to push up the bar. This should be done for every repetition.
• Press your heels into the floor and keep your back against the bench throughout the movement.

Single-Leg Hip Thrust

This is an extremely good butt-shaping workout that should ideally be performed once you can comfortably do glute bridges and barbell hip thrusts.

• Keep two benches in a position parallel to each other.
• Sit over the floor next to a bench.
• Rest your back against the bench side.
• Stretch out your arms to your sides along the bench top.
• Bend both of your knees. Keep one foot in the air. Rest the other on the second bench.
• Press the grounded foot and push up your hips. You may also place heavy plates on your hips to add more resistance.

Weighted Bird Dog

This is an excellent workout for men that toughen the butt also make the hamstrings most active.

• Get down on the floor with only your hands and knees for support.
• Hold a dumbbell in one hand. Wear an ankle weight in the opposite leg.
• Align your wrists under your shoulders and your knees under the hips.
• While you perform Step 2, lift the arm holding the dumbbell and raise the leg with the ankle weight. Continue to lift until the arm and upper-leg are in the same line as your spine.
• Hold this posture for a couple of seconds at the top of every repetition. Tighten the core muscles to make the exercise provide you with full benefit.

Gluteus Maximus Exercises for Women

These workouts help maximally activate the gluteus muscle and provide the female butt with an attractive appearance.

Quadruped Hip Extensions

Here are stepwise directions to the way you should perform this workout.

• Rest your body over your hands and knees.
• Contract your abdominal muscles slightly so as to make your spine and torso more stable.
• Raise one leg, while keeping the knee set at a right angle (90 degrees).
• Raise the leg until the point where the leg is aligned with the body and the bottom of the foot points toward the roof.
• Repeat the process on the same side for 8-12 repetitions.
• Switch the legs and perform the process again. You can try adding weights to your ankle if you want a more intense exercise session. Make sure that your head, neck and back remain completely straight as you perform the workout.

Step-Ups

This is a popular exercise that makes your gluteal muscles tougher and provides your derriere with a more shapely appearance.

• Stand behind a tall box or step (about 15 inch high) with a good posture.
• Hold a dumbbell in each hand to add more intensity to the workout.
• Put your left foot on the box/step. Place all your body weight on that leg.
• Push down with the heel of your left foot. Straighten your leg to make it rest over the box. This will take your body to the level of the box.
• Initiate the step-up using only the left leg and keeping the right leg passive. Let the right leg hang in a limp fashion.
• Repeat the process for 8-12 reps on the same side.
• Switch legs to perform the process with the other leg.

Lunges

This is a famous workout that features in any strength training exercise regimen. It targets the gluteal muscles as also the quadriceps muscles and the muscles that are part of the hamstring.

• Stand erect with good posture and keep a one-shoulder gap between your legs.
• Take a light dumbbell in each hand. This will make your workout more challenging.
• Extend the right foot and take a step forward, while keeping the spine and head straight.
• Bend your knees to make your left knee point towards the floor, but not exactly touching the ground. Ensure that the front heel points down. Also check whether the knee is directly above the middle of the foot. This will lower your body. Keep going down until the thigh is in a parallel position to the floor.
• Push down as well as forward through the heel. This will help you go back to the standing position.
• Repeat the process on the other side. Change the repetitions from 8 to 12 for each side. Add a little more weight with each passing week.

Four-Way Hip Extensions

This workout primarily targets the glutes and the hamstrings. It is usually performed in a gym with a four-way hip extension machine. Here are the steps to conduct this exercise properly.

• Stand tall with a good posture.
• Grab the stabilizing bar of the equipment.
• Place the resistance pad on the back side of the knee of the leg that you are exercising.
• Shift your thigh to a posterior position until your hip is completely extended backward.
• Repeat the process for 8-12 repetitions.
• Change sides and perform the workout again to strengthen another leg.

Gluteus Maximus Stretches

The Gluteus Maximus is involved in a number of physical activities that are performed every day. It is also needed to perform many athletic activities. Naturally, it often suffers a pull or strain. Stretches lengthen the muscle and ease the tension. This helps the muscle regain its original length.

Some of the most beneficial stretching exercises for this muscle are described below:

Gluteal Stretch

This workout targets the gluteus maximus as well as the two other muscles of the “Glutes” group (Gluteus Minimus and Gluteus Medius). It also helps stretch the piriformis muscle located deep within the buttocks and cure piriformis syndrome naturally. Here is how to perform it.

• Lie down on your face.
• Bend your right leg under the abdomen.
• Keep your left leg extended straight.
• Bend ahead at the waist. Retain this posture for 10- 30 seconds.
• Repeat the process on the other side.

Gluteus Stretch

This exercise helps lengthen the Gluteus Maximus muscle and provide relief from painful symptoms caused by Sciatica. Here are stepwise directions to performing the workout.

• Lie down on your back.
• Bend the right leg slowly to bring it up to the chest.
• Pull the right knee towards the left shoulder, using your arms.
• Retain the posture for about half-a-minute.
• Repeat the process again, this time with the left leg and right shoulder.

Gluteus Maximus Pictures

Take a look at these Gluteus Maximus photos to know how the largest muscle in the human body looks like. You may use these Gluteus Maximus images for reference.

Picture 2 – Gluteus Maximus Image

Picture 3 – Gluteus Maximus Muscle

References:

http://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/mysteries/muscles.html

http://www.teachpe.com/stretching/gluteus_maximus.php

http://www.wheelessonline.com/ortho/gluteus_maximus

http://www.miraclesformen.com/gluteus-maximus

The hyoid bone is a distinct bone that does not join directly to any other human bone. In stead, it suspends in a network of muscles and ligaments.

Hyoid bone Location

Picture 1 – Hyoid Bone

The hyoid bone is found in the throat region immediately beneath the person’s chin.

Functions of hyoid bone

The function of this type of bone is to offer support to the tongue, enabling people to appropriately make a number of dissimilar sounds, providing people with oral convenience and tone variation, so individuals can sing at varying intensities.

Original discovery of the hyoid bone

Many and many years back, the hyoid bone was observed in the hominids. A larynx drop, which is a deeper element of the larynx of the gorge, was also seen in the hominids. Larynx drop refers to a development in humans characterized by deep movement of the larynx towards the throat during the process of growing up. Usually, this development occurs during the early years of life. Without the hyoid bone, human being would not be able to communicate suitably as is the care today, virtually making it impossible to decipher what the other people may want to pass across to you. It would be unimaginable if people only made noises and other combinations of long horrible trials. Therefore, it can be safely concluded that the hyoid bone is a very important aspect as far as speech is concerned.

Story behind the discovery of hyoid bone

The original discovery of the contemporary hyoid bone can be traced to Palestine. A Neanderthal guy found in a cave called Kebara was observed to have a unique bone. This made the researchers to develop an interest when they found out that the man had as deeper larynx that had never been witnessed before. They also discovered that the guy had human communication potential. Nevertheless, other discoverers argue that the morphology of this bone is not suggestive of the position of the larynx. It is important to bear in mind the base of the cranium, the mandible as well as the cervical vertebrae besides the skull reference plate.

Origin of the word- Hyoid bone

The word “hyoid” originated from the Greek name hyoeides, which means has the shape of an upsilon. Upsilon is a Greek alphabetic character that considerably resembles the letter U. However, with some leg-like features on the sides the letter also resembles an H having very small legs.

Hyoid bone Structure

Photo 2 – Hyoid Bone Image

The hyoid bone is divided into there main subsections. These are:

• The greater cornu
• The body
• The lesser cornu

The greater cornu of the hyoid bone

Making use of the H to refer to the 3 subdivisions of the hyoid bone can greatly resemble. This can greatly help you to understand the structure of the hyoid bone. The greater cornu is situated on the upper divide of the two perpendicular lines while the less cornu is situated on the lower divide of the two perpendicular lines. On the other hand, the flat line plus the central section between the two perpendicular lines form the body of the hyoid bone.

The body of the hyoid bone

The body of the hyoid bone is made up of four segments.

• The anterior flat is convex-shaped and is stretched frontward and upwards. Well-designed transverse edges having a little downward sloping characterize the upper section of the bone. In a number of scenarios, a perpendicular median edge separates it, thereby making pairs of lateral segments. The section of the perpendicular edge over the slanting line can be observed in most of the samples. However, the lower section can only be observed in uncommon cases. The Geniohyoideus is offered insertion by the anterior plate that can be found in the greater wing of the extended bone segment both below and above the slanting edge, a section of the discovery of the Hyoglossus denotes the lateral circumference of this Geniohyoideus connection.  Beneath the slanting edge, there are the key insertions which include Omohyoideus, Sternohyoideus and Mylohyoideus.
• The posterior plate is concave smooth, and stretches downward and backward. The hypothyroid membrane divides it from the nearby epiglottis. In addition, an amount of areola tissues plus a bursa divides it from the nearby hyothyroid membrane.
• The superior margin is circular and provides connection to the adjacent hyothyroid membrane in addition to certain Genioglossus filaments.
• The inferior margin provides medial insertion to the sternohyoideus as well as lateral insertion to the omnohyiodeus. Additionally, it gives an occasional attachment to the thyreohyoideus. There are other muscles that are attached to the hyoid bone and include levator glandulae thyreoideae among others.

During the early stages of development, the lateral margins interact with the superior cornu via synchondroses.

Uniqueness of the hyoid bone

The hyoid bone is distinct because of the way it is situated in the body. While most other human bones will articulate with other bones, the hyoid bone is a clear exception. Instead, it is found suspended in a network of muscles and ligaments. This means that bit creates no links with any bones.

Muscle attachments of the hyoid bone

Some of the superior muscle attachments that link the hyoid bone include:

• Mylohyoid muscle
• Geniohyoid muscle
• Stylohyoid muscle
• Digastric muscle
• Hyoglossus muscle
• Pharyngeal constrictor middle muscle

The inferior muscle attachments of the hyoid bone include:

• Sternohyoid muscle
• Omohyoid muscle
• Thyrohyoid muscle

The hyoid bone is also composed of the greater cornua, which is also referred to as cornua majora or the thyrohyals. The greater cornua extend rearward starting at the lateral margin of the main body of the hyoid bone. Moreover, they are leveled from over downwards and decrease in size as it extends from the rear side. All these projections terminate in a fixed tubercle that is connected to the hyothyroid muscle on the lateral side of the main body.
The upper plate is rough near the lateral margin to provide great potential for attachments of various muscles. These muscles have diverse insertions that make them connect easily to the various surfaces of the hyoid bone.  For instance, at the medial margin you’ll find an attachment of the hyothyroid membrane. In addition, the Thyreohyoideus attaches itself to the lateral margin of the bone on the anterior segment.
The lesser cornua are also referred to as the cornua minora or Ceratohyals. They are dual, tiny conical projections connected via their bottoms to suitable angles of joint between the greater cornua and the main body. They are joined to the main body by a network of fibers, and in some cases, they can be connected via discrete diarthrodial junctions. While these joints may be long-lasting, at times they can turn out to be ankylosed.
The lesser cornua can be found in row of the slanting edge on the main body. They seem as morphological extensions. The tip of all the lesser cornu provides a base for attachment of the stylohyoid fiber. Additionally, the Chonroglossus begins at the medial section of the bone’s base.

Ossification of the hyoid bone

Ossification of the hyoid bone starts from 6 locations. These are 2 for the main body while each cornu takes one.
Ossification starts at the section of the greater cornua extending towards the terminal of fetal stage, soon after in the main body.
Ossification in the cornua minora starts at least one year after childbirth but before the start of the third year.

Hyoid bone in animals

Examples of animals that have distinct hyoid bones include the cat species. The four species of the cat i.e. the leopard, jaguar, lion and the tiger are able to produce certain sounds characteristic of deeper larynx in their throats.
Only the aforementioned cat species are able to roar due to development of anatomical structure. The key reason for that can explained this was initially thought to be the partial ossification in the hyoid bones. Nevertheless, new research has indicated that the capacity to make these sounds is because of a number of other morphological aspects, particularly the larynx.
The Uncia uncia is a snow leopard species that is often incorporated in the category of panthera but cannot make the roaring sound. While it had a partial ossification of its hyoid bone, the snow leopard doesn’t have the particular larynx morphology.
In loads of other animals, the hyoid bone has other features including several gills in fish and many corneas in reptiles and amphibians.

Hyoid bone syndrome

Hyoid bone problems leading to tenderness near the greater horn of the hyoid bone.

Hyoid bone Fracture

The hyoid bone is strategically placed such that fractures are very rare. In scenarios of murder, a fracture of the hyoid bone is suspected. It indicates strong cases of strangulation or throttling.  Throttling can lead to death because it powerfully reduces the passage of air to the person’s lungs. The neck has a number of points that are vulnerable for powerful throttling and include the carotid arteries.
Strangling is a forceful compression in the neck region that can result in nothingness or even fatal consequences. This is because the act can boost the hypoxic situation in the person’s brain.
Deadly strangling normally takes place in scenarios such as accidents, violence as well as the secondary lethal systems like hanging provided that the neck fails to break. While strangling may not lead to fatal consequences, it is a dangerous situation. Unless interrupted as done in cases of the asphyxias or that of the choking game, strangling can cause early death. However in these events strangling is used in sport and self defensive techniques. Generally, strangling is categorized into three depending on the system applied. These include manual strangulation, ligature strangulation and the lethal system of hanging.

Mortality rate with fracture of hyoid bone

A fracture of the hyoid bone is said to happen in between 17 to 70 percent of the death cases that result from manual strangulation .however, these are uncommonly evidenced in the cases of survivors.

Radiological study of the fracture of hyoid bone

Two scenarios are provided of suspected self strangulation in the manual way in ladies aged between the age of 30 and 35 wherein lateral X-rays showed that there is a common but isolated hyoid bone fracture characteristically affecting the greater cornua of the body. Both cases necessitated the use of X-rays since the victims experienced such symptoms as discomfort during swallowing of food and pain when moving the neck even slightly. The other case reported symptoms such as pain when swallowing food and on talking.
Radiological case of the isolated fracture of the hyoid bone is greatly important to criminal court hearings in situations of unsuccessful manual strangulation. The value of this evidence is greatly increased in cases where the authorities delay their presentations while the exterior evidence of manual strangulation or injury on the neck region may be scant or totally invisible. Care should be taken in cases where the signs and symptoms of strangulation continue for a long period. Consideration is also important when taking the X-rays especially if the pain persists.
Nevertheless, the hyoid bone is not yet well-developed in kids and teenagers and so strangulation cases may be highly regrettable.
Reference:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1256534/pdf/janat00047-0243.pdf

http://www.returning-home.net/The%20Hyoid%20Bone%20of%20Separation.pdf

Conus Medullaris Definition

Medical researchers define Conus Medullaris as the name given to the conical extremity of the Medulla Spinalis (spinal cord). At the pointed end of this bone, the nerve roots of the spinal cord continue to dangle in a formation called the cauda equina. The unique name of the formation comes from the fact that it looks similar to the tail of a horse. As the conus medullaris is situated at terminal end of the spinal cord in the lower back, trauma or lumbar spinal conditions can affect it.

The word is pronounced as “Cone-us Medu-lae-reece”.

Conus medullaris Syndrome

It refers to a collection of symptoms that arise due to damage to the Conus medullaris. The condition usually develops when the nerves in the conus medullaris find it unable to function correctly as a result of constriction of the lower part of the spinal column or undue pressure. Compression may also occur due to other problems like

• Tumor
• Hematoma (localized swelling filled with blood)
• Constriction of the lumbar vertebra
• Injury to the spinal cord
• Spinal cord inflammation due to infection

Other less common factors involve congenital problems that lead to:

• Malformation of the Conus Medullaris
• Multiple sclerosis
• Deep vein thrombosis in the veins that are associated with the spinal cord

Conus Medullaris Syndrome Symptoms

The main symptoms of Conus medullaris syndrome involve discomforts like:

• Numbness in the lower body parts, such as foot, groin and inner thigh
• Weakness in leg
• Difficulties in walking
• Loss of bladder control
• Low back pain
• Impotence

Conus Medullaris Anatomy

Picture 1 – Conus Medullaris
Source – wikimedia

It is usually located between the root of the lumbar vertebrae (L-1) and the finish of the thoracic vertebrae (T-12). Sometimes, however, it can be found in the position between L-1 and L-2.

Cauda Equina and Conus Medullaris

Cauda Equina Syndrome is the name given to a characteristic pattern of urogenital and neuromuscular symptoms that arise due to the simultaneous compression of multiple lumbosacral nerve roots that are located under the level of the Conus Medullaris.

The symptoms of Cauda Equina Syndrome include

• Low back pain
• Bladder problems
• Bowel dysfunction
• Sciatica (unilateral or bilateral, though the latter one is more common)
• Saddle sensory disturbances
• Loss of motor functioning and sensations in the in the lower extremity

Conus Medullaris Termination

In some children, significant variability is found in the termination of the Conus Medullaris (CM). A small percentage of individuals are found to have CM as low as the middle part of L4.

Conus Medullaris Vs Cauda Equine

Read and know about the main differences between Conus Medullaris Syndrome (CMS) and Cauda Equine Syndrome (CES).

Presentation

The presentation is sudden and bilateral in CMS while is it gradual and unilateral in CES.

Reflexes

CMS affects only ankle jerks while CES affects knee as well as ankle jerks.

Low Back Pain

Pain in the lower back region is more in case of CMS patients. Individuals with CES usually have less pain or no pain at all.

Radicular pain

The radicular pain is less severe in CMS while it is more severe in individuals with CES.

Sensory symptoms

The numbness, in case of CMS patients, tends to be more localized to perianal region. However, it is usually more localized to the saddle region in CES patients.

Motor strength

The motor strength is generally symmetric and involves less pronounced Hyperreflexic Distal Paresis of the lower limbs. CES involves more pronounced cases of Asymmetric Areflexic Paraplegia. Fasciculations may be present in CMS patients while they are rare in CES individuals.

Impotence

Both CMS and CES involve impotence. However, the frequency of impotence is more frequent in CMS patients than in individuals affected with CES. However, CES involves other sexual problems like erectile dysfunction, lack
of sensation in the groin region, inability to ejaculate and inability to maintain erection.

Urinary incontinence

CMS involves urinary incontinence in sufferers who find it unable to hold urine in their bladder for long periods of time. The urine tends to overflow in such individuals. However, CES does not involve any problem with urinary incontinence.

Conus Medullaris at Birth

The Conus Medullaris (CM) is mostly found at the level of L3 at birth. It usually rises to L3 at the time of birth and to L1-2 by the time a child is about 3 months old.

Conus Medullaris and Herniated Disc

Conus Medullaris Syndrome (CM) is also found to occur as a result of an intradural disc herniation. In rare cases, it may also develop from herniated L1-L2 disc following knee arthroscopy. If extrusion of D12-L1 disc is also involved, this may lead to other problems like acute paraplegia. This can often improve after a Durotomy is performed.

Conus Medullaris Ganglioglioma

This is an extremely rare disorder and only 12 individuals have been known to be affected by it so far. Ganglioglioma refers to a glioma or brain tumor. The condition is actually a Conus Medullaris tumor. Complete tumor excision is the best treatment for a ganglioglioma in the CM. It is the chosen method for curing this condition even when surgeons require multiple stage operations for treatment.

References:

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/135573/conus-medullaris

http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-173519112.html

http://www.freemd.com/conus-medullaris-syndrome/overview.htm

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1720669/

Radiocarpal Joints are involved in a lot of flexion and extension activities in the wrist. Know all about this joint, including its anatomy and mechanism.

What is Radiocarpal Joint?

It is the anatomical term used to refer the point of attachment between the carpal bones of the hand and radial bones located in the forearm. This joint is also commonly referred to as the “Wrist Joint”.

Radiocarpal Joint Location

It is a joint located between the proximal carpal bone rows and the distal extremity of the radius.

Radiocarpal Joint Anatomy

The joint is classified as a Synovial one. It is bound together by ligaments and contains a fluid and cartilaginous cavity within the bones that is known to be the synovial capsule. The radiocarpal joint may perform motions that include abduction, adduction, extension and flexion. The hand is tilted upon the wrist from one side to another as well as bent upon the wrist from the front to the back.

The radiocarpal joint consists of four bones in total. These involve:

• Radius
• Scaphoid
• Lunate
• Triquetrum

The radius is the extended bone of the forearm the lower or distal end meets the carpal bones of the hand. The Triquetrum, Lunate and the Scaphoid bone cluster together to form the proximal row of the carpus or the bunch of small eight bones located underneath the wrist. The lunate and scaphoid bones meet the radius bone situated in the radiocarpal joint. The Triquetrum does so only once, when the hand is drawn towards the body or bent in the way of the pinky finger. This joint within the carpal and the radial bones is known as an ellipsoid or condyloid joint. This refers to the concave radius surface of the curves surrounding the neighboring convex carpus surface.

Picture 1 – Radiocarpal Joint
Source – classes.kumc.edu

Constituents of the radiocarpal joint may be separated as extrinsic or intrinsic to the joint. A fluid-filled capsule encircled by the synovial membrane is intrinsic to the joint. A gap between the carpus and the radius contains the synovial membrane and runs constant with cavities that are similar and located between and among the carpal bones. This membrane releases a substance known as the synovial fluid that lubricates and fills the joints. The joint cartilage is also situated inside the membrane and acts as a cushion for the space to ensure that there is no friction between the bones. Blood vessels further permeate this space to supply the joint with nutrients.

The wrist ligaments are found outside the radiocarpal joint. Ligaments are mainly composed of collagen or firm connective tissue fibers that connect the bones and shield and encircle the joint. The palmar radiocarpal ligaments can be found in the wrist, on the side of the palm. They run between

• Scaphoid and the Radius
• Lunate and the Radius
• Triquetrum and the Radius

Similarly, the dorsal ligaments on the back of the wrist connect the opposite sides of these bones to the radius. A large articular disk also lies external to the radiocarpal joint and is immediately beside the joint on the pinky-finger or the medial slope of the wrist. It can be found between the Pisiform and Triquetrum bones of the Carpus and the lower or distal end of the ulna bone situated in the forearm.

Radiocarpal Joint Movements

The radiocarpal joint allows multiple wrist motions by connecting the forearm with the hand. Muscles located on the palm side in the anterior forearm can help curl or flex the hand. Muscles positioned on the dorsal side of the posterior forearm assist in extending the hand or twisting it backward. Extra muscles found in the forearm can help abduct or adduct the hand over the wrist, thus shifting it in the way of the pinky or thumb. The simultaneous movement of the radiocarpal joint, the intercarpal joints and the radioulnar joint of the hand can assist in performing more complex motions.

Four major movements are performed with the aid of this joint. Radiocarpal Joint Motions include:

• Extension
• Abduction (radial deviation)
• Adduction (ulnar deviation)
• Flexion

These four movements produce Circumduction taking place in succession. Some of the extension and flexion movements are always attended by similar motion at the Midcarpal Joint. The four motions are performed by muscle group combinations. Flexion is primarily produced by flexor carpi ulnaris and flexor carpi radialis assisted by abductor pollicis longus, palmaris longus and the thumb and finger flexors. The ulnar extensors and the radial extensors aided by the extensors of thumb and fingers produce Extension. The Abductor Pollicis Longus produce abduction. Two radial extensors and the carpi radialis flexor act together to produce abduction when the wrist moves from the midline.

Some of the extension and flexion movement is constantly attended by similar motion at the Midcarpal joint. When flexion occurs, a greater proportion occurs in the Midcarpal joint. A great part of extension happens at the joint of the wrist itself.

The hand, in relation to the forearm, is capable of three kinds of motion. These include

• Flexion and Extension
• Pronation and Supination
• Radial or Ulnar Deviation

The wrist joint has a complicated ligament configuration that helps it maintain mobility without loss of stability.

Radiocarpal Joint Pictures

Want to know how this bone joint looks like? Here are some useful Radiocarpal Joint images that you will find useful for reference. Take a look at these Radiocarpal Joint photos to get an idea about the appearance of this wrist joint.

Picture 2 – Radiocarpal Joint Image
Source – moon.ouhsc.edu

Picture 3 - Radiocarpal Joint Photo
Source - pt.ntu.edu.tw

References:

http://www.mananatomy.com/body-systems/skeletal-system/wrist-joint

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-radiocarpal-joint.htm

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-radiocarpal-joint.htm

http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/wrist+joint

What Is Rectus Femoris?

It is one of the four muscles that constitute the quadriceps group.

Rectus Femoris Location

Picture 1 – Rectus Femoris
Source – deansomerset.com

It is located in the middle part of the front section of the thigh. The muscle is fusiform in shape, meaning it is tapered down at each end. The superficial fibres of the muscle are arranged in a bipenniform (an arrangement of muscular fibres that resembles a feather that is barbed on both sides) and the deep fibres run down directly to the deep aponeurosis.

Rectus Femoris Origin

This muscle has two origins –  anterior and posterior. The anterior origin is from the bottom of the spine while the posterior one is at the Acetabulum (the cup-shaped hollow space in the hipbone where the tip of the femur fits in to form a ball-and-socket joint).

Both anterior and posterior origins begin with a tendon and come together prior to running down to the point of origin of the muscle fibres.

Rectus Femoris Insertion

The insertion of the rectus femoris muscle occurs through a tendon that is known as the quadriceps tendon and attaches to the patella. The insertion also occurs into the tubercle of tibia through Ligamentum Patellae.

Rectus Femoris Muscle Function

This muscle mainly helps in performing two major functions. These are

• Knee Extension – This muscle comes into force when you extend the leg at the knee.
• Hip Flexion – It aids in flexing the thigh at the hip.

Without this muscle, common functions like walking, running, sitting, jumping and kicking would not have been possible.

Rectus Femoris Pain

Pain in this muscle can originate after a session of vigorous exercise or over-activity. Excessive Rectus Femoris muscle strain can lead to pain. In this case, pain mainly arises in the middle of the upper leg. A sharp ache is typically felt when you spread out your leg or raise your knee.

A pain in this muscle is typically cured with rest. Rest does not mean confinement to bed but non-use of the affected muscle in any strenuous activity. It is best to stop any exercise involving the leg as it may aggravate the condition. Pain is usually accompanied by inflammation of the affected muscle. These symptoms are tackled with the application of ice. Applying ice over the affected muscle for the first 48 hours after the origin of pain can reduce the symptoms to a great extent. Ice application leads to Vasoconstriction (reduction in the diameter of blood vessels) and minimizes pain and swelling by decreasing flow of blood and lymph to the region.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAID) drugs such as Naproxen and Ibuprofen can help decrease the symptoms. These medicines contain Cox-2 inhibitors that control the action of Prostaglandin chemicals and Cox-2 enzymes which are the substances that react in response to an injury. Topical ointments like Bengay can also help lower the discomforts, particularly during activity. More severe pain can be tackled with steroids, as per the prescription of doctors.

In case of acute pain due to tear in Rectus Femoris injections may also be used. Botulinum toxin injection is often used for treating this muscle. Intramuscular injection is not used frequently.

Rectus Femoris Rupture

A Rectus Femoris tear is either total or partial. There is usually a rupture of the upper part of this thin muscle that descends to the knee from the front side of the hip. Forceful kicking during the practice of martial arts is one of the main causes of torn Rectus Femoris (RF).

A partial rupture of the muscle can give rise to swelling, even if the injury has healed out almost completely. Partial or bad functioning of this muscle can give rise to problems or inflammations of the joint or other groin or hip muscles. This can be avoided by stretching the quadriceps and the Rectus Femoris which can strengthen them over a period of time.

Rectus Femoris Avulsion Fracture

This is a very rare condition and is usually seen in footballers, martial art practitioners and other individuals who are involved in activities that put extreme stress on the legs. The condition is usually diagnosed with pelvic radiology and treated by analgesic medications. Bed rest is also effective in alleviating the disorder.

Rectus Femoris Transfer

It is a treatment option for kids affected by cerebral palsy who also display a stiff-knee problem during movement. In such kids, surgical operation is required to transfer the Rectus Femoris muscle to different areas in order to resolve problems like tripping and falling during movement.

Rectus Femoris Test

In some individuals, problems in the Rectus Femoris muscle are detected with the aid of diagnostic examinations that involve postural movements. An inability to perform these simple motions can be an indication of problems in the muscle.

Two of the most common diagnostic tests for this muscular problem are

Swayback Test

Here is a stepwise guide on how to perform this test.

• Sit on a firm surface, keeping your legs straight.
• Lie down on your back from the sitting posture, without moving the legs.
• Keep yourself as much relaxed as possible.
• Imagine for a moment that you are lying in warm sand at the beach.
• Try to find out whether you have a greater space beneath the small of your back. A wider space can be indicative of an anterior rotation of the pelvis. This can suggest that you have problems in your rectus femoris muscle.

Heel-to-Butt Test

This test, which helps determine tightness of the RF muscle, should best be performed with the aid of a partner.

Lie on the side of a bed or table. Let the knee and the hip hang somewhat above the edge. Keep the other knee flexed to guard your lower back from injuries.

With the help of your partner, bring your heel gently towards the buttock that is in the same-side. Ideally, the heel should come in contact with the buttock. However, you should not stress to make the contact. Move your heel only as long as you are comfortable. The farther your heel is from the buttock, the tighter should your RF muscle be. If the distance is more than two feet and you are experiencing kneecap pain without any noticeable structural damage, your RF muscle may have suffered damage.

An injury in this muscle can make patients highly vulnerable to leg locks in sports activities such as

• Wrestling
• Brazilian Jiu-Jutsu
• Mixed martial arts

It can also make it difficult for you to participate in activities such as kickboxing and football. Luckily, this muscle heals very quickly.

Rectus Femoris Stretches

Stretching this muscle can make it stronger and help in a faster resolution of any injuries to it. Here is a stepwise guide to one of the most effective Rectus Femoris stretching exercises:

1. Stand in one place and lift up your right foot to get it close to your butt. Use your right hand to catch your ankle.
2. Slowly pull your ankle to your butt. A proper pull should make you experience the stretching sensation in the forepart of your thigh. Slightly push out your pelvis to maximize the effect of your stretch. Repeat the process with the other side.
3. Step forward as if you are trying to perform a lunge.
4. Keep your front leg at a right angle (90 degrees) with your foot positioned flat over the floor. The back leg should also be at a 90 degree angle with the top of the foot on the floor.
5. Keep your pelvis and torso in an upright posture. Bend forward to experience the stretch in your hind leg. Perform the stretch on both of your sides.
6. Stand up with your back to an exercise table or bench. Bend your right leg to put the top of the foot over the bench. Draw your butt muscles in and slowly bend your left leg to experience the stretching sensation in your left Rectus Femoris. Repeat the process with your left leg.

Even after the muscle has been successfully cured, patients should perform stretching at least three-to four times on a daily basis for several days. Each stretch should be performed thrice, devoting 3-5 seconds to each stretch. Muscles on both sides should be stretched and treated.

If you are suffering from a strain or pull in the Rectus Femoris muscle, you should get it treated immediately. Early treatment will help you make an early recovery and get rid of discomforting sensations much faster.

References:

http://www.flashmavi.com/injuries_rectus_femoris_tendon_rupture.shtml

http://www.sportsinjuryclinic.net/cybertherapist/front/frontthigh/recfemrupture.htm

http://www.rad.washington.edu/academics/academic-sections/msk/muscle-atlas/lower-body/rectus-femoris

http://www.teachpe.com/anatomy/muscles/rectus_femoris.php

http://www.deeptissue.com/learn/knee/rectfem.htm

http://www.round-earth.com/kneepain-rectus-femoris.html

What is a Submental Lymph Nodes?

Submental lymph node is one of the lymph nodes in the body located in the neck just below the chin. Submental lymph nodes are  located in the inner digastrics and serve the following regions:

• The teeth
• Some salivary glands (submental)
• The lower lip
• The Mouth floor
• The tongue tip
• The cheek skin

Alternate names for Submental Lymph Nodes

Other names used to refer to submental lymph nodes include submental lymph glands and submental cervical nodes.

Submental Lymph Nodes Functions

The submental lymph nodes drain all debris and waste substances from the teeth, the lower lip, the mouth floor and other regions of the oral cavity. These nodes work in groups in serving their drainage function. Their debris and waste substances flow through submandular lymph nodes and the deep cervical part in the cricoids cartilage.

Submental lymph cells are contained in capsule-like fibers. Some are located just beneath the skin while others lie deep in the body. Just like other lymph nodes, submental lymph nodes play an important role in the immune system. Their function is to filter lymph substances and defend the body against infection by pathogens.

Submental Lymph Node size and shape

Normal submental lymph nodes are 1 cm in diameter. They are small and round in shape. Certain submental lymph nodes found in the chin are noticeable while others are not. Approximately, there are 500 lymph nodes that carry out the various functions.

Picture 1 – Submental Lymph Node
Source – drbentownsend.files.wordpress.com

Role of lymph nodes in immunity

Immune action starts in the lymph nodes and spreads to other parts of the body. Like other lymph nodes, submental lymph nodes play a vital role in the normal function of the body’s immune system. The body defense mechanism involves enlargement of submental lymph nodes to help fight disease-causing microorganisms. It doesn’t matter the seriousness of the medical condition; they help to fight illness and determine the effectiveness of the treatment given to a person.

Lymphocytes are white blood cells present in all lymph nodes including the submental lymph nodes. These cells help the body’s immune system by fighting the disease-causing micro organisms. They also drain all waste substances and debris. When they reach full action, they may enlarge resulting in swelling. This may be as a result of more cells to fight the pathogens.

Submental lymph nodes are vital in protecting the body against:

• Infection by bacteria
• Infection by viruses
• Cancerous substances
• Other disease caused by microorganisms.

Lymph Node Diaseases

Two major lymph node diseases affect the body. These are:

• Localized Lymphadenopathy: This affects only one portion like the neck as a result of swelling of submental lymph nodes.
• Generalized lymphadenopathy affects many portions of the body.

A swelling of submental lymph nodes may denote a disease. However, there is little back up information to show that a certain size denotes an infection or disease. Diagnosis cannot be based on their size. However, if you feel swelling at the neck region, it is necessary to seek medical attention from a qualified professional doctor. Finding an appropriate cure for this condition will require thorough knowledge of the cause of the condition.

Submental Lymph Node enlargement causes

Generally, swelling comes as a result of their involvement in fighting pathogens. The main cause of  submental lymph nodes enlargement is infection.

Infection could be as a result of bacteria, parasites, viruses or parasites. Some of the common infections that can cause swelling of sublimental lymph nodes include mononucleosis syndromes, toxoplasmosis, Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, and dental complications such as periodontitis.

Conditions related to Submental Lymph Nodes

The following complications are related to submental lymph nodes:

• Lymphadenopathy
• Lymphoma
• Wisdom tooth infection
• Oral cancer
• Leukemia
• Swollen lymph nodes
• Tooth abscess
• Metastatic cancer
• Infections of the mouth

Symptoms of Submental Lymph Node enlargement

Swollen sublimental lymph nodes may signify an infection. The symptoms of swollen lymph nodes differ in different persons, conditions (location) and the reason for enlargement.

Some people may lack general symptoms but can be found through testing by a doctor. This is referred to as asymptomatic.

Swollen submental lymph nodes are often very soft or tender, warm, and painful. When a submental lymph node swells rapidly, it causes pain as a result of stretching. Sometimes the swelling brought about by their increase in numbers to fight infection, may be less significant than the symptoms of the disease itself.

Some patients experience tooth pain, mouth pain, enlarged lymph nodes, sweating at night, loss of weight, and fever.

Swollen submental lymph nodes that are situated inside the body may have worse consequences than the swelling of those just beneath the neck skin. This is because the ones deep in the body may block normal drainage of lymph fluids. This can greatly affect the immune system.

You should prepare to visit a doctor, if you do not understand the cause of the swelling.

Preparation before consulting a doctor for Submental Lymph Node enlargement

If you are experiencing swollen submental lymph nodes, it is necessary to begin consulting your personal doctor as soon as possible. On visiting the doctor, you may be advised to go for medical examinations immediately in case the symptoms are serious.

Before your appointment with a doctor, be aware of the following points:

• Be sure you are aware of all what you are expected to do.
• Note all the symptoms and problems associated with the condition that you may be experiencing. It is also necessary to note the duration the condition has been affecting you.
• Also note all causes of possible infection that you have been exposed
• Prepare your medical record: These may include other medical problems that may be undergoing and the prescribed drugs.
• Prepare a good set of questions to ask during the appointment.

Swollen Submental Lymph Nodes Diagnosis

Diagnosis of swollen lymph nodes is often difficult. However, proper diagnosis can be easily achieved where the medical past of the affected person is known by the doctor. This should be followed by a very sensitive medical test. Diagnosis of swollen submental lymph nodes that are near the skin surface is done through an examination by qualified medical personnel.

Swollen submental lymph nodes at the front and back of the neck can be noticed by touching.

Swollen lymph nodes sitting deep in the body can be diagnosed by carrying out a CT-scan of the affected body regions.

Doctors can diagnose swollen submental lymph nodes and tell the cause of the swelling through different characteristics that they observe. For instance, the submental lymph nodes many be classified according to the size, shape, tenderness, firmness, and the feel. Those features are then important in predicting the possible cause of the swelling. For instance, hardness of submental lymph nodes may be associated with leukemia, while other features such as their movement could suggest an infection or disease.

In summary, for successful diagnosis of swollen submental lymph nodes, the doctor should be aware of:

• Your past medical record: Moreover, the doctor needs to have adequate information on when and where swelling of the submental lymph nodes began.
• Physical test: The doctor will have to carry out a thorough physical examination of the lips and the whole mouth cavity. The doctor will also feel the submental lymph nodes just below the surface of the chin skin for different features such as size, texture, wamth, or hardness.
• Blood tests: A doctor may suspect certain blood related infections as the cause of the swelling. In that case, he can conduct different blood tests to ascertain the actual cause of the condition. For example, a complete blood count may be carried out. This test is used to examine the body for many different health problems such as leukemia.
• X-ray or CT-scan may be carried out. This can be used to determine the cause of the condition as well as know the most affected areas.

Submental Lymph Node enlargement treatment

There are only general treatments for submental lymph node enlargement. For instance, one can treat the infection that causes that swelling.

In case swollen submental lymph nodes is accompanied by sweating, fever and loss of weight, the infection requires complete tests because the symptoms are general for any infection.

It is also important to visit your doctor if submental lymph node enlargement persists long after treatment.

Those who have a medical history of leukemia oral cancer and related infections may need to see a doctor if the swelling of the submental lymph nodes persists.

Submental Lymph Node enlargement home care

In case the swollen submental lymph node areas are painful, try the following home remedies to achieve some relief from pain:

• Apply heat: A piece of clothing put in hot water can be compressed on the affected area for some minutes.
• Take pain killers such as OTCs e.g. aspirin, acetaminophen, and ibuprofen. Children should never be allowed to take aspirin except under the recommendation of a doctor.
• You should rest enough. Usually rest is necessary to speed up the rate of recovery from submental lymph node enlargement.

References:

http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/organ/sub_mental_lymph_nodes.htm

http://www.thelymphnodes.com/neck-and-head-lymph-node.php

What Is a Hip Flexor?

It is the name give to a collection of skeletal muscles that act together to pull the knee in an upward direction by flexing the thigh bone (femur) over the lumbo-pelvic complex.

Where Is Your Hip Flexor?

These muscles are mainly located in the anterior part of the upper hip or thigh.

Hip Flexor Stretches

Picture 1 – Hip Flexor Stretch
Source – fmtrainging

Typical workouts often lack stretching exercises in the routine, especially for the Hip Flexor. Some of the most effective hip flexor stretching exercises involves :

Supine Stretch

Position yourself in a flat back or supine posture. Bend and pull one leg onto your chest while extending the other leg at the same time in a straight direction before you and ultimately resting it over the floor. This will stretch the hip flexor muscles. One you hug a leg to your chest, you should hold the posture for around 20 seconds.

Relaxation Stretch

Lie flat on your back. Pull your knees towards yourself while keeping both feet over the ground and around 15 inches away from your buttocks. Keep your hands and arms relaxed beside yourself or on your stomach.

Once you have achieved this position, pull your bones towards the ground. You will start noticing that the distribution of weight will increase all through your body when the hip flexor muscles begin to release.

Seated Hip Flexor Stretch

This is a more intense type of hip flexor stretch and can relax extreme tightness of your muscles. Kneel down over a mat or any soft surface. From this posture, slowly lower down your buttocks in the direction of your heels. Start sliding it out before you while you are keeping the right leg in a bent posture. Start making the left leg straight behind you and ultimately extending it out in a straight direction. Let it rest over the ground with the knee pointing downwards.

Use your arms to support the weight of your body. Bend forward and shift over your right hip into a seated posture. Hold this posture for 20 seconds or more. Switch legs.

Prone Quad Stretch

Roll over the floor on your stomach and lie flat. Lie with a flat back. Keep your legs and neck in a relaxed position. Start raising your right foot and flex it at the knee. Lift your body slightly, reaching your back and using your right hand to grab your right foot. Use an exercise belt or strap to secure your foot in case you find it difficult to reach it. Pull up your leg upward and hold the stretch for about 20 seconds. You should then perform the same quad stretch with the use of your left leg.

Hip Flexor Stretches Video

Check out the video of some of the stretches of hip flexor to know more about it.

Hip Flexor Strengthening Exercises

Trauma to the hip flexor muscles can be prevented by strengthening them with the aid of exercises. Exercises involve flexion of hip muscles. The aim of exercises is to make them strong enough to avoid getting injured due to stretching during daily activities and athletic actions.

Some of the main exercises used for strengthening the hip muscles are

Elbow Instep Lunge

This workout strengthens the thighs, gluteal muscles and hip flexors at the same time. You have to perform this exercise by standing with arms at your sides and your feet together. Take a step in the front direction with your right foot. Lower yourself by bending your knees and achieving a lunging posture. Lean forward while doing this and place your right elbow on the right thigh. You should also place the left hand flat over the floor. Gradually step back to the point where you began. Repeat the action with your other leg.

Perform the workout back and forth alternately with each leg. Do not allow your hind knee to touch the floor while you are in a lunging position. You can make the workout tougher by touching the floor with your hand rather than placing your elbow over your thigh.

Inner Hip Flexion

Fasten an ankle strap the strap to your lower right leg. Stand straight with your back facing towards a weight stack while keeping your right leg behind your body at the same time. Raise your foot from the floor and also pull up your knee before your body until your thigh is in a parallel position to the floor. Slowly bring your leg back down to the starting point. Repeat the process for several times. Switch sides after performing a set of repetitions.

Leg Lifts

Lie down on the floor. Place your hands at the sides of your body. Raise your legs until they are in a right angle (90-degree angle) to your body. Gradually lower them down, until they are about an inch from the floor surface. Repeat the process. Place your hands beneath your tailbone if you experience stress on your lower back.

If you find this exercise too easy to perform, you can make it more rigorous by wearing ankle weights. You may also wrap your lower legs with a rubber resistance band and pull it against your legs. You may need the help of a family member or a training partner to do this.

Hip Flexor Injury

As the name indicates, this refers to an injury of the Hip Flexor muscles. The condition is also known as Hip Pain Strain and is caused by an overstressing of the Hip Flexor muscles. This usually happens due to over-exercise, cleaning of the house or any other activity that puts the said muscles under extreme stress.

The main symptoms of this condition involve pain and tenderness in the back, the hip and the leg. Hip Pain Strain is another name for this traumatic condition of the hip.

The muscles of the hip are usually very strong as they aid in sitting and walking as well as for performing athletic functions like jumping and running. However, these muscles can suffer injuries as much as any other muscle in the body. Overstressing of hip flexor muscles can give rise to pain and other discomforting symptoms. However, a person can even suffer a hip trauma by performing very simple activities like walking, bending to pick up things and even stretching across the bed.  This may happen due to extreme extension of the hip muscles.

The condition may also arise due to other factors, such as

• Acute trauma
• Reduced strength
• Poor flexibility
• Weak muscles in the lower abdomen

If you are suffering from this condition, it is advisable that you return to activities after complete recovery. Engaging in sports or strenuous activities too soon can worsen your trauma and result in permanent injury. Return to activities depends on the extent of injury as well as the rate of recovery. Generally, the longer a person leaves the condition untreated the longer the time for recovery is.

These injuries may be prevented by performing proper warm-ups and stretching exercises prior to exercise or strenuous activities.

Hip Flexor Pain

A strain in the Hip Flexor muscle often gives rise to pain in the anterior region of the hip. The strain commonly affects the IlioPsoas muscle that comprises of the Iliacus and the Psoas muscles. A Hip Flexor strain gives rise to an injurious condition known as IlioPsoas Syndrome.

The extent of pain depends on the severity of the muscular damage. Pain in the hip can arise abruptly and is sensed in the anterior (front) part of the thigh. The pain may expand in a downward direction and get aggravated with forward or upward motion of the injured leg.

The pain in the hip may make it difficult for sufferers to engage in physically stressful activities such as running and other exercises. In some cases, even walking may give rise to physical agony. In some cases, pain in the hip muscles is associated with inflammation and bruising.

Hip pain can arise due to abrupt injury to any of the three muscles like Psoas Major, Rectus Femoris and Illiacus. Pain can be reduced and even treated with the aid of rest and ice application.

Hip Flexor and Tendonitis

Excessive pressure on the hip flexors can also give rise to Tendonitis problems. IlioPsoas Tendonitis and Iliopsoas bursitis are two common problems arising from overstress of these muscles. These conditions are marked by an inflammation of specific tendons and muscles in the hip.

Hip Flexor Tightness

Excessive stress on the hip flexors can strain them and make them extremely tight. Tightness of the hip flexors usually occurs due to sitting or cycling for long periods of time, performing ice sports or lifting heavy objects. The IlioPsoas muscle is one of the deepest and largest of the hip flexors and it is a common site of injury.

Strain in the IlioPsoas muscles can give rise to various discomforts. Some of the common Hip Flexor strain symptoms involve pain in the middle and lower back, hips, upper buttocks, pelvic floor, abdomen and the groin.

Hip Flexor Injury Treatment

If you doubt yourself to be having this condition, stop all activities that you suspect to be a causative factor. Immediately get in touch with a health professional and get a proper diagnosis done. Doctors, sports trainers, chiropractors and physical therapists can properly cure an injured Hip Flexor.

A mild injury of this group of muscles can be treated with rest and application of ice. Apply ice to the injured area for 15- 20 minutes after every ten minutes. Continue this for an hour, once in the morning and once again in the evening. This will help the area heal sooner than later. It is also necessary to avoid any activity that puts excess pressure over the muscles.

Sleep on the uninjured side of your body. Place a pillow in between your knees to avoid causing strain to the injured hip. A non-sticky, odorless over-the-counter analgesic cream called Arnica is also available to reduce painful sensations and inflammation in the leg and hip.

Hip Flexor Exercises with Bands

Hip flexor workouts are often performed with the aid of an exercise band, which helps strengthen the hip flexor muscle. The exercise can be performed very easily. Just step onto one extremity of the workout band with your left foot. Make a loop with the other end over the upper region of your right leg. Form a loop with the band back down. This will enable you to step back onto the other extremity of the band with your left foot and keep it in position. Raise your right leg that you had bent until now to rest against the band and operate your right hip flexors. Gradually lower your leg. Wrap the band around the upper area of the left leg once you have finished exercising with the right leg.

There is another exercise with the resistance band that provides practitioners with great resistance and improves stability on the support leg.  Fix one end of the band to some secure object and wrap the other end around the ankle. Slightly lean forward and flex the ankle, driving the knee as high as you can. Hold each repetition for a second at the top to maximize the effect of training and concentrating at the same time on flexion at the knee, dorsiflexion (backward flexion) at the ankle and an upright position that is free of too much rotation. The spine makes an attempt to rotate and balance the movement. However, you should try to keep a neutral position to increase the worth of spinal stability during the workout.  You should use a comparatively light band as heavier bands can be too strong at the top of the movement.

The exercise can be performed without any hand support. However, it is better for beginners to hold something in order to get more stability at higher resistances.

If you suspect to be having an injury in the hip flexor muscle, stop all your activities and get in touch with a health care provider. Professional caregivers for this condition can be doctors, sports trainer, chiropractors or even physical therapists.

References:

http://www.speedandstrengthcoach.com/Hip_Flexion.html

http://www.pulled-muscle.com/hip-flexor-injury/pulled-hip-flexor-symptoms-causes.php

http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/h/hip_flexor_strain/intro.htm

http://www.migraine-headaches-solution.com/hip-flexor-strain-treatment-exercises-tips/

What is Brachialis ?

Brachialis is a muscle located at the upper arm. Brachialis muscle flexes the joint of the elbow and assists biceps branchii in this endeavor. It forms part of cubital fossa’s floor. This muscle has its origin in the humerus’ front lower half close to the deltoid muscle’s insertion. Brachialis muscle embraces the deltoid muscle in two processes.

Picture 1 – Brachialis
Source – edoctoronline

Note that the brachialis muscle does not participate in the forearms’ supination and pronation. This is because they do not insert in the radius.

Importance of Brachialis

The word ‘brachialis’ is a Latin word which implies ‘to the arm’. Irrespective of the grip that one is using during exercises, brachialis muscle has a key involvement in the elbow flexion. This therefore underlines the utility of the muscle in sports where pulling and grabbing are used. It also collaborates with the biceps brachii to create a crucial balance to the joint of the elbow especially for the people that use triceps brachii for overhead movements like hitting and throwing for example in handball and volleyball.

Brachialis Exercises

Working out the brachialis would have the implications of giving the biceps a larger appearance. In addition, it enhances the strength of the muscles thus allowing you to be in a position to lift increased weight especially in curling movements.

When looking into workouts that would enhance the strength of the brachialis muscle, it would be important that you incorporate brachialis exercises that are focused or concentration on the bicep set’s end. If this does not happen you would be risking having minimized grip strength via heavier loads of the other biceps. There are several brachialis exercises that you could undertake to enhance the strength of the brachialis including-

• Hammer curls – these should be performed with neutral grip. Every hand should be holding a dumbbell while the arms remain along the body sides. Curl the elbows in order to have both dumbbells raised. One dumbbell should be brought to the level of the shoulder then returned to the resting position. Let this motion be alternated between hands. It would be important that you try as much as you can to keep the upper arms immobile when you are performing the exercises. It is the focus on both the forearm and the elbow that engages the brachialis to a greater capacity thus helping in strengthening it.
• Upside down curls – you can load the straight barbell with half the weight that you would use for similar regular barbell curl sets. Grasp the barbell spacing the hands the length of the shoulder while the palms face the floor. Ensure that the elbows remain at the body sides while you move via the motion range for the common barbell curls. In this case, you will be focusing the load on the brachialis more given your hands’ angle as well as the enhanced difficulty of keeping the grasp.
• Thumbs-up curl – stand a foot away from the low-pulley machine. While keeping the upper arms and elbows close to the body sides, grasp the rope. Remember to keep the thumbs up too for the whole part of the exercises. The rope should be curled until the biceps become fully contracted. Go lower until the arms become fully extended. Repeat this exercise continuously and the many times that you can.

Brachialis Injury

Brachial plexus are nerves that communicate between the shoulders and the spine. Many are the times when there is torn brachialis muscle there will be a lot of pain experienced. This is especially in contact sports though other sports can also cause it. You need to acknowledge that stretched nerves would heal by themselves while torn ones would necessitate surgical therapy.

What are the symptoms of brachialis nerves injury?

These symptoms have some great variations determined by the location as well as the severity of the brachialis muscle tear. In most cases, you will only have one arm affected.

For brachialis muscle strains that are less severe, you would experience burning sensation or electric shocks shooting down the arm. In addition, the arm may become weak and numb. In most cases these will not last long though it will vary with individuals. It mainly occurs in sports like wrestling or football which involve the stretching of the nerves.

Brachialis muscle Injury that are more severe incorporate rupturing or tearing of the nerves. The most severe injury of the nerves happens when the root of the nerves is ruptured from spinal cord. In this case, in these severe injuries, you would experience severe pain. you would not be able to use the fingers though you would still use the arms. In addition, you could be able to use the fingers though the elbow muscles and shoulders would still be in use.

You would need to appreciate the seriousness of the injury when you consider the fact that it can result to permanent disability or weakness. This therefore underlines the importance of seeking medical attention even when the injury seems to be minor.

Symptoms that may necessitate immediate medical attention include neck pain persistent stingers and burners, having both arms and fingers weak or having both of them exhibit the symptoms.

What are the causes brachialis injury?

There are several things that would result to damaged brachial plexus. This is mainly when you force down the shoulder and the neck draws out from the shoulder that has been injured. This can occur in a number of ways

• Trauma – these include animal bites, knife or bullet wounds as well as injuries from vehicular accidents. These would cause damage to the nerves.
• Sports – contact sports are known to stretch the nerves beyond the limit. This is especially in contact sports when the players collide with each other.
• Difficult births – this is the case with newborns when the mother has problems giving birth like prolonged labor etc. in most cases, it is the upper nerves that are injured though both lower and upper nerves can be damaged.

What complications are there for brachialis muscle injury?

It would be important to acknowledge that in many cases, injuries of the brachial plexus will heal by itself without no permanent damage. However, some of these injuries may result in permanent problems in which case it would be important to seek immediate medical attention.

Some of the complications involved include chronic pain, complete loss of the sense of feeling, stiff joints as well as muscle atrophy. Muscle atrophy is a situation where the muscles degenerate due to lack of use as nerves that grow slowly take long to regenerate.

In other cases, the injury may result in permanent disability. You would acknowledge that the pace and quality of recovery will be dependent on numerous factors like the location of the injury and its severity as well as type, age and general state of health. You need to note that permanent disability can occur even when you have undergone surgery. This disability ranges from weakness of the arms, shoulders and hands to paralysis of the same.

What are the tests involved in diagnosing brachial plexus injury?

Diagnosis of the injury of brachial plexus is done using a number of tests. These help in determining the severity and the extent of the brachialis muscle injury. They include :

• Magnetic resonance imaging - this incorporates the use of radio waves as well a strong magnetic fields to evaluate the structures of the muscles. This shows the severity of the damage to brachial plexus. These tests help in determining whether the nerves have been severely disengaged from the spinal cord.
• Electromyography – this test is conducted to determine the health of nerves that aid in the movement of the muscles. Minute needle electrodes will be inserted via the skin to the muscle then the patient is told to contract the muscle. This causes the generation of a certain level of electrical activity. It is this electrical activity that gives information on the response of the muscle to nerve stimulation. You will acknowledge however that you would feel pain with electrode insertion though it does not have to be uncomfortable.

How is the injury of brachialis muscle tear treated?

Control of pain

It would be imperative that proper control of the pain is undertaken. You will acknowledge that the pain can really be overwhelming. In this endeavor, you could make use of anticonvulsants or antidepressants. In addition, you could make use of Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation, a device which involves the use of electrodes which are attached to the skin in order to provide nerve pathways with electrical impulses thus relieving the pain.

Transfer of muscles

In this case, the surgeon would remove a tendon or muscle that is less important from other body parts then transfers it to the arm. This is especially in case of deterioration of the arm muscles.

Nerve surgery

Depending on the severity of the brachialis muscle injury, the nerves would actually heal by themselves especially when they have only been stretched and not torn. However, you would note that the process of healing may sometimes bring about scar tissues which have to be removed in order to enhance the functioning of the nerves. This is especially in cases where the nerves incorporate considerable scar tissues, have been torn or cut.

Reference:

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11948956

http://functionalanatomyblog.com/2010/09/02/anatomy-review-the-brachialis-muscle/

What is an Infraspinatus muscle?

Infraspinatus is a thick muscle, triangular in shape, taking the greater part of infraspinatous fossa. Mainly, infraspinatus muscle is responsible for the lateral rotation of the arm as well as the stabilization of the shoulder joint. Infraspinatus muscle is one of rotator cuff’s four muscles.

Origin and Insertion of Infraspinatus muscle

The infraspinatus mucle medially attaches to infraspinous fossa as well as laterally to the facet in the middle of humerus’ greater tubercle. The muscle is covered by infraspinatus fascia from which it arises and also separates it from teres minor and teres major. Also, it forms tendinous fibers in the ridges located at its surface as while forming fleshy fibers starting at the infraspinous fossa’s medial two thirds.

These fibers join into a tendon that glides above the spine’s lateral or side border. These also traverse the shoulder joint’s capsule in the outer part. The infraspinatus tendons are slotted into the central impression of humerus’ greater tubercle. This infraspinatus tendon insertion is actually larger in comparison to supraspinatus.

How does the Infraspinatus muscle function?

Picture 1 – Infraspinatus
Source – sportsinjuryclinic

As earlier stated, the infraspinatus muscle is responsible for the stabilization of the shoulder joint as well as assisting the arm in its outward rotation. Primarily, it horizontally extends as well as assists in the shoulder joint’s lateral rotation. It forms the shoulder’s key external rotator. In case of a fixed arm, the infraspinatus muscle holds the scapula’s inferior angle with the assistance of the deltoid, subscapularis and teres minor.

Together with the teres minor, they are responsible for glenohumeral joint’s extension as well as the outward rotation of the humerus’ head.

Weakness of the Infraspinatus muscle

There is an enhanced risk of shoulder injury when one is throwing or in traverse adduction and flexion activities of the shoulder. This is especially in cases where the elbow has traveled behind the shoulder. This risk is increased with long-drawn out shoulder girdle. The infraspinatus and the teres minor counteract the Petroralis Major’s strong forces of stabilizing as well as dislocating. The counteracting force is very important during a traverse adduction or flexion initiation as well as the throwing movement’s end.

What are the trigger points of the Infraspinatus muscle?

Many are the times when trigger points are ignored because of the distinctive referral pattern of the infraspinatus. As much as the infraspinatus shoulder is placed on the back, you need to note that the shoulder’s front bears the major referral pain. Pain would also occur along the shoulder’s outer portion while going to upper arms.

In most cases, the infraspinatus experiences frozen shoulder, a condition that results in stiffness and weakness of the shoulder. The scar and adhesions tissue located in the shoulder joint mainly causes this.

Infraspinatus muscle injury

It would be imperative that we first determine how shoulder injuries occur. These are mainly caused by habits rather than any predisposing factors. Repetitive straining or habitual overloading associated with the outward rotation of the arm would cause injury of infraspinatus muscle. This is especially when you keep your arms overhead or in front, for example, working on the computer without support for the elbow or driving a vehicle with hands on the wheel. In addition, repeatedly reaching the back would cause infraspinatus tear for example, controlling the computer mouse etc.

Symptoms of infraspinatus tear

Symptoms of infraspinatus injury include :

• Pain in the front shoulder- Infraspinatus pain goes down into the biceps feeling like it is in the shoulder joint. In addition, the shoulder blade, neck as well as side shoulder may hurt.
• Infraspinatus atrophy-You would have limited mobility making it difficult to reach back or even lie on the shoulder as you sleep.
• Weak or stiff shoulder- the arms and the shoulder would be easily tiring out on a single side as compared to the other. The arm could also get numb, still as well as have the muscles imbalanced.

Can infraspinatus injury be prevented?

Looking into the infraspinatus injury, one would acknowledge that it is possible to prevent its occurrence especially by changing the sitting and exercising habits. In this endeavor, one would be best placed sitting in the correct manner. In this case, you need to sit with the shoulder blades drawn back and down. In addition, you could prevent the stressing of the muscles by taking more water. In addition, you definitely do not have to stress one hand for too long. Get the other hand to work as well in order to give the other one a break. Get a quality chair that incorporates elbow support in order to enhance the relaxation of the shoulders.

How are infraspinatus injuries treated?

Having in mind that the infraspinatus is part of the four muscles of the rotator cuff’s, it therefore means that the other muscles will have to compensate for the injured or weakened infraspinatus muscle. This definitely would not be the best having in mind that the whole shoulder would be in problem. A condition commonly called frozen shoulder would actually result if the shoulder is not treated in time or the injury taken care of earliest possible.

Fortunately, the treatment of the infraspinatus injury does not have to be complex. One only has to change their behavior. To start with, it would be important that you fix the posture especially when you are exercising or sitting. Flaring or hanging shoulder blades make for bad posture. In addition, you can incorporate some exercises for example the realignment of the pelvis, stretching the doorway chest as well as shoulder dislocations. These would improve the mobility of the upper body, pull down the shoulders and strengthen the traps and the upper back.

In addition, you need to go slow with lifting weights. Reduce the weight while taking time to improve the technique and build back slowly.

Another remedy would be carrying out therapy on the trigger points. These are the knots that occur in the muscles when they are over-stimulated. They cause the stiffening or the shortening of the muscles. In this case, the muscle attachments would be stressed by movement and can cause damage to the connective joint as well as distort the joints. Testament to the joint stress resulting from trigger points is popping of the shoulder joints. You need to acknowledge that the incorporation of exercises would aggravate the pain as irritate further the trigger points. However, the trigger points can be removed by massaging the infraspinatus. In this case, the shoulder blade should be massaged by the use of a tennis ball alongside a wall. In addition, you could massage the Rhomboid, which lies between the spine and the shoulder blade. You still could use a ball in this case.

Infraspinatus exercises

It would be important that you acknowledge that the infraspinatus muscle is very weak. This therefore heightens the risk of shoulder injury. This is especially when you are undertaking activities like rowing, throwing etc that would rotate your shoulder or have the elbows brought behind. It would be important that you undertake exercises which would strengthen the muscle as well as save you time and pain.

The following are the infraspinatus exercises that one can follow to minimize the risk of infraspinatus tear.

• Side-lying abduction – this is an exercise that strengthens the infraspinatus alongside the other rotator muscles like subscapularis and supraspinatus. This is an exercise that has been found to be most effective in comparison to the others. In this exercise, you would incorporate the use of a dumbbell which would provide resistance. It is recommended that you use one that weighs between 5 percent and 8 percent of the body weight in case of women and men respectively. This weight is however not limited to those as it will depend on the number of repetitions that you would want to perform. In this exercise, you would have to lie on the left side while holding the dumbbell on the right hand. The palm should be facing you while the hand is on the floor. You would than rotate the right arm to an angle of 45 degrees from the torso while the elbow still touches your body. Rotate the arm to the floor.
• Incline lever row – this exercises the back muscles as well as the infraspinatus and the shoulders. You would have to use a machine to perform the exercise. In this case, you would lie on incline platform with your face down. Your chest should go to the bench with the feet pressing against footrests. The knees are in this case slightly bent. You then reach down to the handles and grab them with overhand grip. In this case, your palms will be facing your feet. You would then proceed to pull the gripped handles to the sides in which case your elbows will be behind you. While you row, ensure that the neck is straight and not extended forward. In addition, ensure that you do not get off the incline platform. You would then proceed to lower the machines’ handles before straightening the arms back into starting position.

The  infraspinatus exercises are very effective in strengthening the infraspinatus muscles. It would be important that you undertake the infraspinatus exercises on regular basis while also taking care not to use too much weight as to damage other muscles.

Reference:

http://radiology.rsna.org/content/226/1/161.full.pdf

http://www.exrx.net/Muscles/Infraspinatus.html

http://www.myweightlifting.com/infraspinatus-muscle.html

Compact Bone Definition

It is a bone is one of two kinds of bone tissue that can be found in the body of a human being. It is also known as Cortical Bone.

Compact Bone Function

Picture 1 – Compact (Cortical) Bone
Source – wikimedia

Some of the main functions of Compact Bone are :

Protection of Cancellous Bone

The compact type of bone wraps around and protects the only other type of bone tissue known as the Cancellous Bone.

Supports weight

Compact Bone supports the weight of the human skeleton. The Cancellous Bone is soft and spongy in nature and would have been unable to support the human skeletal structure without the back up of the Compact Bone.

Provides rigidity and strength

This bone tissue is the main component of the long bones of the leg, the arm and other bones. It provides more strength and rigidness to the bones when needed.

Contains blood supply

Mature compact bone is structurally layered or lamellar. It is penetrated by a detailed system of Haversian systems and interlinking vascular canals that contain blood to be supplied to the Osteocytes. The bone is set up around these canals in concentrical layers, thus constituting structural divisions that are known as osteons.

Helps in new bone formation

Immature compact bones have a woven structure and do not contain Osteons. It forms a collagen fibre framework all around and is finally replaced by mature bone in forming new bones that make the osteons. It is also involved in bone resorption remodelling.

Disposal of waste

These bone tissues, along with the aid of Haversian and Osteons, dispose of waste and deposit minerals that help in building strength and providing solid growth. Cancellous and cortical bone tissue constitutes the overall bony component of the human skeletal system.

Supports the skull

Cortical bones constitute the skull which is one of the most important parts of the human body. Presence of this tissue provides humans with the ability to bear trauma to the skull and balance the weight.

Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone

It is a dense bone where the bony matrix is soundly filled with inorganic salts and organic ground substance. Only tiny spaces (lacunae) are left which that contain the bone cells or Osteocytes. Compact bone constitutes as high as 80 percent of the skeletal structure of the human body. The remaining part is filled with Cancellous Bone that has an appearance similar to a sponge with many large spaces. It is found in the Medullary cavity (marrow space) of a bone. Both Compact and Cancellous types can be found in most human bones. Bone tissues are distinguished as spongy or compact depending on the proportions of soft and mineralized tissues.

Compact bone is mostly detected in long bones that can be found in the, legs, arms, toes and fingers. These bones are greater in length than width and need added support and strength that can the compact bone tissue can provide. Compared to long bones, short ones are approximately cube-shaped and consist of only a lean, compact bony tissue layer. Short bones can be found in the ankle and wrist.

Compact Bone Disorders

Some common disorders affecting the cortical bone tissue include

• Osteoporosis
• Osteomyelitis infection
• Congenital musculoskeletal defects which affect muscle and bone function

This bone tissue requires regular calcium intake along with other hormones and minerals through diet. Vitamin K and Vitamin D are also very important for the development. Lack of any of such substances can lead to changes in the structure of the bone and consequently affect the function of bones.

Certain amount of demineralization naturally takes place during the aging process. However, severe loss of calcium loss results in weakening and thinning of bones. Due to this, bones can become susceptible to fractures.

Compact Bone Structural Composition

This type of bone tissue is made up of osteons, or cells that are composed of frail layers of the membrane called lammelae. This membrane protects the blood and nerves of the internal core of the compact bone. When osteons die, they change into lammelae and forms obstruction within osteon cells that can be found inside the matrix of the compact bone. The density and strength of compact bones develops as a result of this. The osteons appear as the rings of tree and vary in appearance in different animals. This is reason why an examination of the physical composition of osteon remnants can help identify their age, gender or taxonomic category (type of species). Haversian canal maintains the source of blood and nerves that are located in the inner centre of the cortical bone tissue and is shielded by a very compact outer shell.

The cortical bone cells appear to be closely clustered together into a compact mass. This kind of bone tissue is not entirely solid even though they are close together. There are tiny canals running through the bone that allow blood vessels to get through it. Spongy bone, which resembles as sponge, contains large open spaces.

Compact Bone Vs Spongy Bone

There are very few spaces and gaps within the Compact bone tissue. Its porosity is very little. Cortical Bone tissue constitutes approximately 80% of this bone. It is due to its low porosity that it is also known as dense bone.

Cancellous or spongy tissues can be found in the interior position of the bone. This tissue comprises of an almost porous structural network that has shapes of plates and rods. Only 20% of bone mass is made up of Spongy tissues though their surface area is ten times greater than that of compact bone tissues.

Spongy bone tissues are surrounded by blood while compact bone tissues are bordered by marrow. Bone marrow appears as a yellowish fluid and can be found in the cavities within the compact bone tissues. It is in the spongy bone tissues where the red bone marrow can be found.

Cortical Bone tissues are strong and dense and may be found on the outer part of the bone. Spongy tissues are porous and may be found on the inner part of a bone. Blood is made on the spongy part of the bone.

Haversian system can be found in cortical bone tissues but is missing in spongy bone tissues.

References:
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/129490/compact-bone

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-compact-bone.htm

http://www.innerbody.com/image_skel09/skel61.html

http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/B/bone.html#compact